Clark Barrow

Outline

1. Introduction
2. Narrative Text
3. Expository Text
4. Table 1
5. Summary
6. References
7. External Links

Readers of all ages must be aware of text structures if they are to be most successful. The structure, or organization of the text, is the method of arranging ideas and the relationships among the ideas (Armbruster, 2004). Readers who are unaware of differing text structures are at a disadvantage because they do not approach reading with any type of reading plan (Meyer, Brandt, & Bluth, 1980). However, readers who are familiar with text structures expect the information to unfold in certain ways (Snow, 2002).

Students first learn to read narrative text structures, which are story-like structures that facilitate their learning to read. Because of this, students enter school having a sense of the narrative structure. As they begin school, their awareness of text structures must increase as they progressively shift from reading story-line, or "casual" (Lorch & Lorch, 1996, p. 1) text to reading for information. By the third grade, and obviously by the fourth, there is a noticeable shift where students are expected to read text for information, information that is often dense and written in long passages (Gillet, Temple, & Crawford, 2004: Saenz & Fuchs, 2002; Snow, 2002). The way authors present text to readers depends on their purpose for writing.

Narrative Text

Narrative texts are “stories written to entertain {and} reflect only one text structure {which is} (characters, setting, plot)” (Saenz & Fuchs, 2002, p. 8). In fact, the main purpose of a narrative text is to “tell a story” (Moss, 2004, p. 3). Narrative texts are generally well suited for young readers – when written on their reading level -- because they are easy to read, easy to remember, and easy to comprehend (Graesser, 1991). Children develop knowledge about the narrative structure before they enter school and they acquire this naturally through their readings and life’s experiences (Graesser).

Children naturally form their logic through sequential events (Graesser, 1991). Their world is a world of concrete and in most cases, tangible objects. However, in narrative texts, the story line may violate any sense of reality (e.g., when Dumbo flies with his big ears or when trees walk or dogs talk). Although stories such as these are fiction, they appeal to the learner’s sense of imagination and spur the learner’s interest. Because narratives are in a story line structure, events unfold sequentially in a manner readers can relate to because of personal prior experiences (Graesser). These events portray the “core content of what children and adults experience in everyday life” (Graesser, p. 172).

One may reason that knowledge or learning cannot develop with children reading fictional books or stories. However, Piaget states, “knowledge always involves some inferential dimension” (Piaget & Garcia, 1991, p. 159) and contributes to the assimilation of schemes, a development which is necessary for children to transition from reading narrative to reading expository texts.

Being familiar with narrative texts does not guarantee readers’ success in expository texts. Successful readers of narrative texts must learn specific strategies to transition smoothly from “story telling narratives to information-laden expository text (Saenz & Fuchs, 2002, p. 8). The growing child’s mind does not develop in a linear process. In genetic epistemology, Piaget (Piaget & Garcia, 1991) asserts that the “development of the cognitive system is neither a continuous growth nor a linear process” (p. 128). Transitioning from reading for fun in primary years to reading for information in later school years is cognitively demanding. One reason children have difficulties transitioning from narrative to expository texts is that “Story continues to be the predominate genre in early elementary classrooms” (Moss, 2004, p. 2).

Expository Text

Reading for information is important and can be unnerving. Expository prose is “very different from narrative prose” (Bakken & Whedon, 2002, p. 1). The exposition, distinguished "by its heavy concentration of factual information as well as the absence of a story-like structure, can be daunting for students and teachers alike" (Barton, 2004, p. 404). This exposition mandates the need for an awareness of text structures and is heightened by today's inclusion of technology, which requires reading electronic media such as web pages, online course materials, and e-books (Snow, 2002). This inclusion of technology, which is inherent in today’s information age, mandates students “greater familiarity with and understanding of expository text” (Moss, 2004, p. 1). The ability of students to read successfully is also contingent on the cognitive load.

Research shows the cognitive load of text can increase the readability level to the point of a complex piece of discourse (Ediger, 2002). The addition of many unfamiliar words, as found in expository text, creates a need for students to learn individual word recognition. Since students read expository text for facts and concepts, they need to recognize individual words, not for pronunciation purposes, but for comprehension purposes (Ediger).

Students who possess an awareness of various text structures should improve their comprehension levels (Dymock, 2005). Since expository prose is so different form narrative prose, Bakken and Whedon (2002) say students need explicit instruction in strategies that help them identify the different types of text structures. This need for instruction is compounded by many textbooks’ “inadequate structure and poor organization” (p. 1). Diagramming different text structures may help students make sense of their readings. Students may use graphic organizers to visually see the text layout and gain a deeper understanding of its structure (Dymock). Dymock categorizes expository text structures as either descriptive or sequential. Students’ awareness of text structures may improve their self-concept of their reading abilities.

Part of the ability for readers to read expository text successfully stems on their personal views of their reading skills, their “self-efficacy” (McCrudden, Perkins, & Putney, 2005, p. 1). Self-efficacy, however, is not uniform across the continuum of reading text types. Bandura (1997) says readers’ self-efficacy can differ between narrative and expository prose, “even though both involve reading {therefore}, self-efficacy is specific to a task” (McCrudden et al. p. 2) and is “strongly related to … academic achievement” (Suls, 1993, p. 205). Readers should view reading expository text as informational and pleasurable (Sanacore, 2006).

Many researchers subscribe to the constructivist cognitive theory that helps explain the understanding of expository texts, which should make it more pleasurable for the reader to read (Spivey & Melton, 1989). Since understanding expository text structures is contingent on understanding types of text structures, the constructivist cognitive theory helps provide the foundation of understanding. A learner’s background knowledge helps the reader build that “cognitive repertoire, by selecting content on the basis of some principle of importance” (Constructivist Perspectives section, para. 1). Central to the understanding of expository texts is the reader’s ability to recognize text structure and use this “structure in forming representations” (para. 2).

Expository text structures vary in their designs and complexities. The structures, which are defined differently by different people (e.g., Meyer, 1985, as cited in Spivey & Melton, 1989), propose an unequal continuum of organizational abilities. For example, the descriptive text structure is the weakest of designs (Brandt, 1978; Meyer & Freedel, 1984, both as cited in Spivey & Melton, 1989). In addition, a text structure, such as comparison, can also vary in the way its content is arranged (Schnotz, 1984 as cited in Spivey & Melton); a variance in arrangement may produce different meanings to readers.

Schnotz explains this variance in arrangement produces permutations that cause the reader to process the information differently. Permutations are the different arrangements of items when their order is important. Therefore, readers who prioritize individual pieces of information construct meaning from the text according to this order of importance. In many instances, the reader constructs meaning based on the author’s presentation of information according to the “importance principle” (Spivey & Melton, 1989, Constructivity and Selection section, para. 1).

Table 1 presents five general expository text designs. Authors usually determine the type of text structure to use according to the type of information they are presenting (see examples in Table 1). In addition, sometimes a combination of text structures add to the complexity of design (Saenz & Fuchs, 2002, p. 8). The reader must therefore rely on cues to generate connections between pieces of information (Lorch & Lorch, 1995).

Table 1

Comparison and Examples of Expository Text Structures

Summary

Children begin learning to read before they enter school. Through narrative texts such as Dumbo, children learn how to follow a story line. Narrative readings may not always include true stories. Many books are fiction and Dumbo is an excellent example. Who would really think an elephant could fly? However, theorists suggest these stories help children build inferences to connect what is real with what is not real. Because of this, children’s knowledge and cognitive abilities are shaped through such inferences and assimilations of what they experience and what they read.

As children progress through school, they face having to read challenging texts, texts that require them to read for information instead of simply reading for fun. Authors generally structure these texts according to the type of information they are presenting. As students learn to read, they should learn to recognize different text structures so they can predict what type of information is included. In addition, many expository text structures include more than one style, which complicates the reading for the student. The basic need is therefore for teachers to teach students to identify text structures and to decide what information is most important in their readings. Many graphic organizers facilitate this learning. In addition, an author of an expository text may also facilitate this learning by presenting information in an order of importance. Reading narrative texts for young readers is critical to increase fluency and comprehension. Reading expository texts for growing readers is critical to learn information and be successful in school and life.

Armbruster, B. B. (2004). Chapter 5 Considerate texts. In Content Area Reading and Learning: Instructional Strategies (pp. 47-null8). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Retrieved April 1, 2007, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110600097

Bakken, J. P., & Whedon, C. K. (2002). Teaching text structure to improve reading comprehension {Electronic version}. Intervention in School & Clinic, 37(4), 229+.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

Barton, J. (2004). Chapter 27 Theory becomes practice a design for content area lesson planning. In Content Area Reading and Learning: Instructional Strategies (pp. 403-null29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Retrieved April 1, 2007, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110600455

Dymock, S. (2005). Teaching expository text structure awareness. The Reading Teacher, (59)2.

Ediger, M. (2002). Factors which make expository reading difficult {Electronic version}. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 29(4), 312+.

Gillet, J. W., Temple, C., & Crawford, A. N. (2004). Understanding reading problems: Assessment and instruction (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Graesser, A. (1991). 8 Narrative Representation and Comprehension. In Handbook of Reading Research (Vol. II, pp. 171-200). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved April 14, 2007, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55546976

Lorch, R. F., & Lorch, E. P. (1996). Effects of Organizational Signals on Free Recall of Expository Text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 38-48. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96406411

Lorch, R. F., Jr., & Lorch, E. P. (1995). Effects of organizational signals on text-processing strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 537-544.

Mccrudden, M. T., Perkins, P. G., & Putney, L. G. (2005). Self-efficacy and interest in the use of reading strategies {Electronic version}. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20(2), 119+.

Meyer, B. J. F., Brandt, D. M. & Bluth, G. J. (1980). Use of top-level structure in text: Key for reading comprehension of ninth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 72-103.

Moss, B. (2004). Teaching expository text structures through information trade book retellings: Teachers can help students understand common expository text structures by having them retell information trade books {Electronic version}. The Reading Teacher, 57(8), 710+.

Piaget, J., & Garcia, R. (1991). Toward a Logic of Meanings (P. M. Davidson & J. Easley, Ed.) Electronic version. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Saenz, L. M., & Fuchs, L. S. (2002). Examining the reading difficulty of secondary students with learning disabilities: Expository versus narrative text. Remedial and Special Education, 23(1), 31+. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from Questia database:

http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000696588

Sanacore, J. (2006). Nurturing lifetime readers Electronic version. Childhood Education, 83(1), 33+.

Snow, C. (2002). Reading for Understanding : Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: Rand. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102669352

Spivey, N. N. & Melton, C. (1989). Construing constructivism: Reading research in the United States. Occasional Paper No. 12. Retrieved from D2L’s RED6747 class website on March 13, 2007.

Suls, J. (Ed.). (1993). Psychological Perspectives on the Self (Vol. 4) {Electronic version}. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

http://www.kidbibs.com/learningtips/lt39.htm#student KidBibs’ Learning Tips. (Their home page at: http://kidbibs.com/home.htm ). This site talks about difficulties that children have when reading expository text. It also outlines student and text factors that impede reading. In addition, it gives many strategies for helping students use expository text patterns.

http://www.literacymatters.org/content/readandwrite/expos.htm Literacy Matters. This site’s page is titled “Reading: Reading Expository Text” and talks about teaching children to read and understand informational texts. It also gives has a link to a page titled “Text Structure” where they talk about compare-contrast text, timelines, tables, and columns – all indicators of expository text.

http://www.big6.com/showenewsarticle.php?id=248 Information Literacy for the Information Age. On this page, Dr. Pages has an article titled, “Expository Text: The Choice for Some, A Challenge for Others” that explains expository text. It also has a table that compares narrative and expository text.

http://www.englishcompanion.com/room82/readexpository.html This is a page inside the website of http://www.englishcompanion.com/index.html This page has an article titled, “Reading Expository Text (Textbooks, Essays, Articles, Reports, Workplace Documents) and gives two bulleted lists: (a) one telling what teachers need to do to help students understand expository texts, and (b) one telling students what to do to understand expository texts.

http://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=219 read*write*think This page gives a lesson plan for students in grades K-2. The lesson plan uses the topic of weather to introduce students to expository texts. They start out by reading fictional materials about weather and then move into non-fictional text with the objective to find answers to questions. It seems like a very good lesson plan that begins to transition students from narrative to expository texts.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Expository_writing&oldid=116249664 (This is an archive link, which shows the page as I saw it at the time I wrote this annotation. If you go there, you may click on a link to the current version to see if it differs.) Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. This article, titled, "Expository Writing" explains the meaning of an expository piece. Quite simply, the definition states that expository writing 'exposes' information and is the most used type of writing used in higher level learning. The article lists 7 types of organizational structures.

Commentary by V. Simmons

The topic of perceiving text structure, is closly related to the topic of concept of story. Your table one presentation of expository text structures was easy to follow and understand. I found it interesting that "authors usually determine the type of text structure to use according to the type of information they are presenting". I had not thought about it in that way.

With regard to your external links, as a teacher, I found many useful links that I was unaware of until your wiki. However, I was glad to see that you included www.readwritethink.org. It is a wonderful website.

In addition, when you discuss that authors present text to readers depending on thier purpose for writing, it made me think about how important it is for readers and writers in our classrooms to have a purpose.

Finally, I think it is a great wiki. It is useful information that was well organized and thought out. This is something that I can learn from your wiki.